A vision of Ireland through time
A vision of Ireland from 1821 onwards.
Including maps, statistical trends and historical descriptions.
A vision of Ireland through time
A vision of Ireland from 1821 onwards.
Including maps, statistical trends and historical descriptions.
1841 Census of Great Britain, Occupations (Sample Report Title: Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to Acts 3 & 4 Vict. c. 99, and 4 Vict. c. 7, intituled respectively " An Act "for taking an Account of the Population of Great Britain," and "An Act to amend the "Acts of the last Session for taking an Account of the Population." Occupation Abstract, 1841: Part I. England and Wales, and Islands in the British Seas), Table [1] : " Occupation Abstract".
| Show Yorkshire AncC table | North Riding Riding |
|---|
| OCCUPATIONS |
Males
|
Females
|
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
20 Years of Age and upwards
[1] |
Under 20 Years of Age
[2] |
20 Years of Age and upwards
[3] |
Under 20 Years of Age
[4] |
|
| Accountant |
8 
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Actor (Play) |
12
|
1
|
3
|
2
|
| Agent and Factor (branch not specified) |
29
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Agricultural Implement-maker |
1
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Alum Works |
184
|
31
|
0
|
0
|
| Anchor-smith and Chain-maker |
8
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Architect |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Army |
31
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Army, Half-pay |
11
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Artist |
11
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Attorney and Solicitor |
139
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Auctioneer and Appraiser |
16
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bacon and Ham-dealer and Factor |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Baker |
130
|
24
|
34
|
0
|
| Ballast Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bank Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Banker |
22
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Barrister |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Basket-maker |
42
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Bath-keeper |
4
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Bed and Mattress-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Beehive-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bell-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bit-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Blacking-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Blacksmith |
1,093
|
214
|
4
|
0
|
| Bleacher |
37
|
4
|
2
|
0
|
| Block and Mast-maker |
23
|
9
|
0
|
0
|
| Boat and Barge-builder |
34
|
19
|
0
|
0
|
| Boat and Bargeman |
84
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
| Boiler-maker |
7
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
| Bone-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bonnet-maker |
0
|
0
|
25
|
5
|
| Bookseller and Bookbinder |
37
|
6
|
6
|
0
|
| Boot and Shoe-maker |
2,435
|
494
|
32
|
4
|
| Brandy-merchant |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Brass-moulder |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Brazier, Brass-worker, and Tinker |
62
|
17
|
3
|
0
|
| Brewer |
81
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
| Brick and Tile-maker |
316
|
32
|
10
|
1
|
| Bricklayer |
341
|
49
|
1
|
0
|
| Broker (branch not specified) |
4
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Brush and Broom-maker |
34
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Buckle-maker |
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Builder |
27
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Butcher |
581
|
29
|
3
|
0
|
| Butter-factor |
9
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer |
219
|
80
|
16
|
0
|
| Canal Service |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cap-maker and Dealer |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Carpenter and Joiner |
1,698
|
460
|
3
|
0
|
| Carpet-manufacture |
29
|
5
|
1
|
0
|
| Carrier, Carter, and Waggoner |
179
|
13
|
4
|
0
|
| Carver and Gilder |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cattle-dealer |
40
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cellarman |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cement-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Chair-maker |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Charcoal-burner |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Charwoman |
0
|
0
|
153
|
0
|
| Cheesemonger |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Chemist and Druggist |
86
|
30
|
0
|
0
|
| Chimney-sweeper |
27
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
| China, Earthenware, and Glass-dealer |
13
|
0
|
8
|
0
|
| Clay-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Clergyman |
147
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
| Clerk |
297
|
39
|
1
|
0
|
| Clock and Watch-maker |
96
|
10
|
1
|
0
|
| Clothier |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coach Maker (all branches) |
32
|
11
|
0
|
0
|
| Coach Proprietor |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coachman, Coach-guard, and Postboy |
75
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Coal Heaver, Labourer, and Porter |
97
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coal Merchant and Dealer |
37
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Coal Meter |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coal-agent |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coffee-shop-keeper |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Comb-maker |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cooper |
104
|
5
|
1
|
0
|
| Cork-cutter |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Corn-cutter (Chiropodist) |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Corn-dealer |
27
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cotton Manufacture |
12
|
0
|
7
|
1
|
| Crape-dresser |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Crate-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Curiosity-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Currier and Leather-seller |
139
|
46
|
3
|
0
|
| Cutler |
15
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Distiller |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Draper |
226
|
119
|
24
|
2
|
| Draper, Linen |
16
|
11
|
4
|
0
|
| Dress-maker and Milliner |
1
|
0
|
879
|
209
|
| Drover |
19
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Dyer |
19
|
5
|
10
|
1
|
| Dyer, Thread |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Dyer, Wool |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| East India Company's Service |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Eating-house-keeper |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Engine and Machine-maker |
36
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
| Engineer and Engine-worker |
71
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
| Engineer, Civil |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Engraver |
11
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Factory-worker (branch not specified) |
1
|
0
|
5
|
1
|
| Farm-bailiff and Land-steward |
21
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Farmer and Grazier |
7,265
|
68
|
613
|
0
|
| Farrier, Cattle-doctor and Veterinary Surgeon |
63
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Fellmonger |
27
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| File-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fireman |
7
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Fish-curer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fish-dealer and Monger |
68
|
1
|
8
|
0
|
| Fisherman and Woman |
334
|
25
|
5
|
0
|
| Fishing-tackle-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Flax-manufacture (all branches) |
69
|
12
|
24
|
14
|
| Flour-dealer and Mealman |
14
|
0
|
6
|
0
|
| Fringe-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fuller |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Furrier |
0
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
| Gardener |
434
|
27
|
5
|
0
|
| Gas-fitter |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Gas-works Service |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| General Dealer |
6
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Ginger -beer and Lemonade-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Glass and Glass Bottle-manufacture |
25
|
14
|
0
|
0
|
| Glover and Glove-maker |
3
|
0
|
12
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, All other Departments |
14
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, Customs and Excise |
110
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, Post-office |
35
|
0
|
8
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, Stamps and Taxes |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Green-grocer and Fruiterer |
20
|
2
|
9
|
1
|
| Grinder |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Grocer and Tea-dealer |
449
|
104
|
168
|
3
|
| Groom and Hostler |
192
|
63
|
0
|
0
|
| Gun-maker and Smith |
24
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
| Haberdasher and Hosier |
20
|
1
|
3
|
0
|
| Hair-dresser |
91
|
16
|
2
|
0
|
| Harbour Master |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hardwareman |
11
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
| Hat-box-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Hatter and Hat-maker |
53
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
| Hawker, Huckster, and Pedlar |
155
|
6
|
25
|
1
|
| Hay and Straw-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hemp-dealer and Dresser |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hook and Eye-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hoop-shaver |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Horse-dealer and Trainer |
56
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Iron Manufacture |
74
|
23
|
0
|
0
|
| Iron Merchant |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Ironmonger |
30
|
7
|
2
|
0
|
| Jet-worker |
27
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
| Jeweller, Goldsmith, and Silversmith |
16
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
| Keeper Light and Light-house |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Keeper or Head of Public Institution |
33
|
0
|
22
|
0
|
| Keeper, Game, Gate, and Park |
122
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
| Keeper, Lunatic Asylum |
6
|
1
|
6
|
0
|
| Keeper, Spa |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Knacker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Knitter |
4
|
0
|
46
|
3
|
| Labourer |
1,704
|
66
|
359
|
4
|
| Labourer, Agricultural |
13,885
|
3,983
|
1,342
|
443
|
| Lace Livery-Weaver |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lace-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lace-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Land Agent |
39
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Last-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lath-maker and Render |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Laundry-keeper, Washer, and Mangler |
0
|
0
|
145
|
0
|
| Law Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Law Officer |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lead Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lead-manufacture |
42
|
3
|
12
|
4
|
| Librarian |
0
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Lime-burner |
28
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Linen Manufacture (all branches) |
462
|
60
|
24
|
14
|
| Livery-stable-keeper |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Locksmith and Bell-hanger |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lodging-house-keeper |
15
|
0
|
64
|
0
|
| Maltster |
60
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Mason, Paviour, and Stone-cutter |
989
|
142
|
2
|
0
|
| Match-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Mat-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Merchant |
46
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Midwife |
0
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
| Milk-seller and Cow-keeper |
30
|
0
|
24
|
0
|
| Miller |
401
|
21
|
10
|
0
|
| Millwright |
65
|
16
|
0
|
0
|
| Mine Agent |
16
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Miner (branch not specified) |
80
|
11
|
0
|
0
|
| Miner, Coal |
218
|
36
|
1
|
0
|
| Miner, Iron |
42
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Miner, Jet |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Miner, Lead |
871
|
175
|
2
|
0
|
| Minister |
87
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Muriate-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Musician and Organist |
13
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
| Nail-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Nailor and Nail-maker |
28
|
4
|
1
|
0
|
| Navy |
27
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Navy, Half-pay |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Net-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Nurse |
0
|
0
|
35
|
4
|
| Nurseryman |
12
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Oil-miller |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Optician |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Organ-builder |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Painter, Plumber, and Glazier |
294
|
68
|
7
|
0
|
| Paper Box-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Paper-hanger |
9
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Paper-maker |
26
|
1
|
6
|
1
|
| Parochial and Church-officer |
37
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pastry-cook and Confectioner |
26
|
6
|
27
|
0
|
| Patten and Clog-maker |
36
|
5
|
1
|
0
|
| Pawnbroker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Perfumer |
1
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
| Physician |
11
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Piano-forte maker and Tuner |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pig-jobber and Dealer |
14
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pipe-maker |
18
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
| Plasterer |
33
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Plate-layer |
37
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Police-officer, Constable, and Watchman |
29
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Porter, Messenger, and Errand-boy |
21
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Porter-merchant |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Potter and Pot-maker |
160
|
50
|
45
|
43
|
| Pottery-painter |
2
|
0
|
0
|
7
|
| Poulterer |
4
|
0
|
6
|
0
|
| Printer |
49
|
29
|
1
|
0
|
| Printer, Calico |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Printer, Copper-plate |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Printer, Woollen |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Provision-merchant |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pump-maker |
1
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
| Quarryman (branch not specified) |
27
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Quarryman, Slate |
18
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Quarryman, Stone |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Quill-dresser |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Rag-gatherer and Merchant |
8
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Railway Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Railway Contractor |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Railway Service |
19
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
| Rake-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Reed-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Road Contractor |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Rope and Cord-spinner and Maker |
114
|
21
|
16
|
3
|
| Sack-maker and Weaver |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Saddle tree-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Saddler and Harness-maker |
201
|
51
|
2
|
0
|
| Sail-cloth and Canvas-weaver |
27
|
9
|
0
|
0
|
| Sail-maker |
29
|
11
|
0
|
0
|
| Salt-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Sand-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Sawyer |
153
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
| Scale-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Schoolmaster, Mistress, and Assistant; Tutor or Governess |
401
|
10
|
298
|
8
|
| Scrivener |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Seaman |
690
|
59
|
0
|
0
|
| Seaman, Pilot |
47
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Seamstress |
0
|
0
|
65
|
2
|
| Seedsman |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Servant, Domestic |
1,287
|
948
|
6,035
|
5,127
|
| Shag-manufacturer and Weaver |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Broker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Builder, Carpenter and Wright |
299
|
120
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Chandler |
2
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Ship Owner |
61
|
0
|
8
|
0
|
| Ship Rigger |
3
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Smith |
7
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Shop-keeper |
49
|
4
|
63
|
1
|
| Sieve and Riddle-maker |
3
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Silk Mercer |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Silk-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Skinner |
15
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Slate-merchant |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Slater |
26
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
| Slop-seller |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Spinner (branch not specified) |
1
|
1
|
81
|
4
|
| Stationer |
7
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Stationer, Law |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stay and Corset-maker |
8
|
0
|
14
|
0
|
| Stick-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stocking-maker and Weaver |
2
|
0
|
20
|
0
|
| Stone-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stove-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Straw Bonnet and Hat-maker |
1
|
0
|
102
|
17
|
| Straw, Worker in |
3
|
0
|
6
|
0
|
| Stuff-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Surgeon and Apothecary |
166
|
14
|
0
|
0
|
| Surveyor (branch not specified) |
24
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Surveyor, Land |
10
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Surveyor, Road |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tailor |
1,306
|
436
|
7
|
0
|
| Tallow-chandler |
34
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
| Tallow-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tanner |
88
|
12
|
1
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Beer-shop-keeper |
9
|
0
|
7
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Hotel and Inn-keeper |
271
|
0
|
77
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Publican and Victualler |
447
|
2
|
111
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Spirit-merchant and Dealer |
21
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Dancing |
3
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Mathematics |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Music |
11
|
4
|
3
|
3
|
| Teacher or Professor of Singing |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teazel-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Thatcher |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tiler |
14
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Timber Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Timber-merchant |
15
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Tin-plate-worker and Tinman |
36
|
6
|
1
|
0
|
| Tobacconist and Tobacco-manufacturer |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Toll-collector |
27
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
| Tool-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Toy-maker and Dealer |
2
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Traveller, Commercial |
11
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Trunk and Box-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Turner |
36
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
| Umbrella and Parasol-maker |
3
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Undertaker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Varnish-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Vermin-destroyer |
19
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Vitriol-manufacture |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Warehouseman |
8
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Weaver (branch not specified) |
415
|
17
|
7
|
0
|
| Weaver, Damask |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Weaver, Silk |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Well-sinker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wharfinger |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wheelwright |
321
|
78
|
2
|
0
|
| Whip-maker |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Whitesmith |
95
|
28
|
0
|
0
|
| Wine-merchant |
18
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
| Wood Merchant and Dealer |
6
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Wood-bailiff |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Woodman and Wood-cutter |
54
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Woollen and Cloth-manufacture (all branches) |
201
|
22
|
4
|
4
|
| Woollen-draper |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Worsted-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Worsted-manufacture (all branches) |
3
|
0
|
1
|
2
|
| Yarn-spinner |
7
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Total Number of Persons whose Occupations are returned as above |
46,942
|
8,825
|
11,320
|
5,941
|
| Other Persons employed in Trade (branch not specified) |
121
|
92
|
9
|
3
|
| Number of Persons returned as of Independent Means |
1,962
|
46
|
4,270
|
111
|
| Almspeople, Pensioners, Paupers, and Beggars |
414
|
166
|
571
|
150
|
| Other Persons |
389
|
13
|
230
|
5
|
| Residue of Population |
4,332
|
37,180
|
41,668
|
39,362
|
| TOTAL POPULATION |
54,160
|
46,322
|
58,068
|
45,572
|
Click on the triangles for all about a particular number.
This website does not try to provide an exact replica of the original printed census tables, which often had thousands of rows and far more columns than will fit on our web pages. Instead, we let you drill down from national totals to the most detailed data available. The column headings are those that appeared in the original printed report. The numbers presented here, which are the same ones we use to create statistical maps and graphs, come from the census table and have usually been carefully checked.
The system can only hold statistics for units listed in our administrative gazetteer, so some rows from the original table may be missing. Sometimes big low-level units, like urban parishes, were divided between more than one higher-level units, like Registration sub-Districts. This is why some pages will give a higher figure for a lower-level unit: it covers the whole of the lower-level unit, not just the part within the current higher-level unit.